Medications listed in the tables and non-FDA approved indications included in these retrospective criteria are not indicative of Texas Vendor Drug Program formulary coverage.
Intranasal or oral ketorolac, a nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID), is FDA-approved for short-term (no more than 5 days) management of acute moderate to severe pain, usually in the postoperative setting, that requires pain management at the opioid level.
Oral ketorolac is only approved for use after therapy initiation with intravenous or intramuscular ketorolac. Therefore, a prescription for a parenteral form of ketorolac should precede treatment with oral ketorolac to satisfy manufacturer and FDA recommendations.
The maximum recommended dosage for oral ketorolac is 40 mg/24 hours given in divided doses every 4 to 6 hours. Dosages exceeding this recommendation will be reviewed.
Intranasal ketorolac is dosed as one spray (15.75 mg) in each nostril every 6 to 8 hours for a maximum total of 8 sprays (126 mg) in a 24-hour period for patients less than 65 years of age. In patients with renal impairment, age greater than or equal to 65 years, or those weighing less than 50 kg, intranasal ketorolac should be dosed as one spray (15.75 mg) in one nostril every 6 to 8 hours for a total of 4 doses (63 mg) per 24-hour period. Discard the intranasal ketorolac bottle after 24 hours, even if liquid is still present in the bottle, as the delivery system is not designed to deliver the intended dose after 24 hours.
Ketorolac is not FDA-approved for pediatric patients younger than 17 years of age as safety and efficacy in this age group have not been established. In adolescents 17 years of age and older, the maximum oral daily ketorolac dose is 40 mg in divided doses as continuation from parenteral ketorolac therapy. The maximum intranasal dose in pediatric patients 17 years of age and older is 126 mg per 24 hours in divided doses [one spray (15.75 mg) in each nostril (31.5 mg total) every 6 to 8 hours]. Discard the intranasal ketorolac bottle after 24 hours, even if liquid is still present in the bottle, as the delivery system is not designed to deliver the intended dose after 24 hours.
The maximum treatment duration for oral and parenteral ketorolac, combined, is 5 days due to increased frequency and severity of adverse effects associated with extended use. The maximum treatment period for nasal ketorolac when used as monotherapy or sequentially with other ketorolac dosage forms is also 5 days. Treatment regimens exceeding these requirements will be reviewed.
Elderly patients frequently utilize prescription and nonprescription NSAIDs to manage acute and chronic pain. Several issues surface with NSAID use in elderly patients, including potential adverse effects and drug interactions. NSAID-induced gastrointestinal and renal toxicity as well as adverse central nervous system effects are more prevalent in elderly patients due to changes in metabolism, underlying disease states, and concurrent drug therapy. The majority of fatal gastrointestinal events associated with ketorolac use have been seen in elderly or debilitated patients. The potential for increased cardiovascular risk with NSAID use is also a factor when evaluating NSAID therapy in elderly patients. Elderly patients prescribed NSAIDs, especially those at higher risk, should be evaluated for appropriateness of therapy as well as potential for drug-drug interactions. Appropriate ketorolac therapy duration as well as appropriate dosages should also be evaluated.
Some clinical trials have shown that patients prescribed selective and nonselective NSAIDs may be at increased risk for serious cardiovascular (CV) thrombotic events, myocardial infarction, and stroke, all of which can be fatal. Patients at greater risk are those with known CV disease or risk factors for CV disease. Due to the lack of long-term clinical trial data, CV risks associated with NSAID use remains controversial, especially in high-risk patients. Risk also varies between nonselective NSAIDs and cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) inhibitors, as well as between individual NSAIDs. The Center for Drug Evaluation and Research has determined that the increased risk of CV events associated with NSAID use should be considered a class effect for both selective and nonselective NSAIDs until more results are available. Patients should be prescribed the lowest effective NSAID dose for the shortest possible treatment duration to minimize the potential for cardiovascular adverse events.
NSAIDs may induce new onset hypertension or worsen pre-existing hypertension in some patients, which may contribute to the development of cardiovascular adverse events. Blood pressure should be routinely monitored in patients prescribed NSAIDs.
NSAIDs may cause fluid retention or edema in some patients, and should be used cautiously in patients with a history of fluid retention or heart failure.
All NSAIDs may be associated with an increased risk of serious gastrointestinal (GI) adverse events, including potentially fatal GI bleeding, ulceration, or gastric/intestinal perforation. The risk of NSAID-associated severe GI adverse events increases in patients with a history of peptic ulcer disease, GI bleeding, smoking, alcohol use, concurrent use of anticoagulants or oral corticosteroids, advanced age, poor health and prolonged NSAID use. Ketorolac has a greater incidence of gastritis, gastric ulceration with or without perforation and gastric bleeding compared to other NSAIDs and is contraindicated for use in patients with a history of or active peptic ulcer disease, GI bleeding, or perforation, and should be used cautiously in patients with other types of GI disease (e.g., inflammatory bowel disease). Additionally, total systemic use for ketorolac is limited to 5 days due to increased incidence of severe adverse events, including GI events, with prolonged use.
Adjunctive use of ketorolac with other ketorolac dosage forms, aspirin or other NSAIDs is contraindicated as combined therapy may result in an increased risk of gastrointestinal (GI) adverse effects and may also increase serum ketorolac levels. Therefore, concurrent ketorolac use with these agents will be reviewed.
Patient profiles will be assessed to identify those drug regimens which may result in clinically significant drug-drug interactions. Drug-drug interactions considered clinically significant for ketorolac are summarized in Table 1. Only those drug-drug interactions classified as clinical significance level 1 or those considered life-threatening which have not yet been classified will be reviewed.
| Target Drug | Interacting Drug | Interaction | Recommendation | Clinical Significance Level # |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| ketorolac | pentoxifylline | adjunctive administration may increase bleeding risk, due to unknown mechanism | combined therapy contraindicated | severe (CP) |
| ketorolac | phenytoin | concurrent administration increases seizure risk due to unknown mechanism; ketorolac may displace phenytoin from binding sites | monitor for seizures, signs/symptoms of phenytoin toxicity; adjust phenytoin doses as necessary | moderate (CP) |
| ketorolac | probenecid | combined administration may increase ketorolac serum concentrations and potential for enhanced pharmacologic/adverse effects due to decreased ketorolac clearance | adjunctive administration contraindicated | severe (CP) |
| NSAIDs | antihypertensive agents (e.g., angiotensin converting enzyme inhibitors, angiotensin receptor blockers, beta blockers, diuretics) | potential for decreased antihypertensive effects, increased renal impairment risk (especially in patents dependent on renal prostaglandins for perfusion), with combined therapy; increased hyperkalemia risk with potassium-sparing diuretics; NSAIDs may block production of vasodilator and natriuretic prostaglandins | monitor blood pressure, renal function; observe for hyperkalemia with potassium-sparing diuretics; modify therapy as necessary; use combination cautiously in elderly; sulindac, nonacetylated salicylates may be alternative NSAIDS – have less inhibitory effect on prostaglandin synthesis | moderate (CP) |
| NSAIDs | antiplatelet drugs (e.g., clopidogrel, prasugrel) | potential for increased bleeding risk due to additive inhibitory effects on platelet aggregation | administer cautiously together; monitor for increased bleeding, especially gastrointestinal (GI) bleeding | moderate (CP) |
| NSAIDs | bisphosphonates | combined therapy may result in additive GI, renal toxicity; NSAIDs also decrease bone mineral density, may attenuate bone mineral stabilizing effects by bisphosphonates | administer combination cautiously; monitor for increased GI/renal adverse effects, reduced bone mineral density | major (CP) |
| NSAIDs | corticosteroids | potential for increased GI adverse effects with combined therapy | monitor for adverse effects; avoid prolonged concurrent administration | moderate (CP) |
| NSAIDs | cyclosporine | increased risk for additive renal dysfunction with concurrent administration; potential for reduced cyclosporine elimination/ increased pharmacologic and adverse effects due to NSAID effects on renal prostaglandins; NSAIDs may mask signs of infection (e.g., fever, swelling) | use cautiously together; monitor clinical status and signs/symptoms of cyclosporine toxicity (e.g., renal dysfunction, cholestasis, paresthesias) | moderate (CP) |
| NSAIDs | fluoroquinolones | increased risk for seizures, potentially due to inhibition of gamma aminobutyric acid (GABA) which results in CNS stimulation | administer cautiously together; consider alternative therapy in patients with predisposition to seizures | moderate (CP) |
| NSAIDs | lithium | NSAIDs like ketorolac decreases lithium clearance by blocking renal tubular prostaglandins; may result in increased lithium levels and potential for adverse effects | avoid combination, if possible; if concurrent therapy necessary, monitor lithium levels and signs/symptoms of lithium toxicity when ketorolac therapy initiated or discontinued | moderate (CP) |
| NSAIDs | low molecular weight heparins | potential for additive bleeding adverse effects; NSAIDs inhibit platelet aggregation and have increased GI bleeding risk, prolonged bleeding time | avoid concurrent therapy, if possible; if drug combination necessary, use cautiously, monitor for signs/symptoms of bleeding | major (CP) |
| NSAIDs | methotrexate (MTX) | potential for increased MTX serum levels, risk of enhanced pharmacologic/toxic effects as NSAIDs like ketorolac can reduce MTX clearance | avoid concurrent NSAIDs prior to, concurrently or following intermediate or high-dose MTX; use cautiously together with low-dose MTX; monitor for increased myelopsuppressive, GI adverse effects; may consider using longer leucovorin rescue | severe (CP) |
| NSAIDs | SSRIs/SNRIs (e.g., milnacipran) | increased bleeding risk with combined therapy, especially GI bleeding; SSRIs/SNRIs deplete platelet serotonin, which may impair platelet aggregation | monitor for signs/ symptoms of bleeding; may consider shorter treatment duration, adding proton pump inhibitor, or substituting tricyclic antidepressant for SSRI/SNRI or acetaminophen for NSAID | moderate (CP) |
| NSAIDs | sulfonylureas | increased risk for additive hypoglycemia due to inhibition of sulfonylurea metabolism | monitor serum glucose concentrations; adjust doses as necessary | moderate (CP) |
| NSAIDs | tacrolimus | potential for additive nephrotoxicity with combined therapy due to NSAID inhibitory effects on renal prostaglandins | avoid combination, if possible; if concurrent therapy necessary, closely monitor renal function | moderate (CP) |
| NSAIDs | warfarin | combined therapy may increase risk of GI bleeding as NSAIDs, including ketorolac, inhibit platelet aggregation and may cause gastric erosion | monitor anticoagulant activity and signs of bleeding, especially in first several days of combination therapy; adjust warfarin doses as necessary | major (CP) |
Legend: